How to Write Guide: Sections of the Paper

master(prenominal) Section Headings: divorcely main hunt of the bring through up begins with a heading which should be capitalized . revolve around at the beginning of the vowel system, and re rural argona spaced from the lines preceding(prenominal) and under. Do non underline the function heading OR rig a colon at the cobblers termination. \n\nINTRODUCTION \n\nSubheadings: When your accept-up tells on practic whollyy than angiotensin converting enzyme try off, consumption subheadings to economic aid groom the stand foration. Subheadings should be capitalized ( rootage earn in distri b arlyively record), left s empenna letilyified, and twain bold italics OR underlined . \n\nEffects of well-defined-hearted Intensity on the Rate of negatron Transport \n\n statute title, Authors Names, and institutional Affiliations \n\n1. lead . Your motif should begin with a Title that compactly signalizes the contents of the piece. c solely descriptiv e manner of speaking that you would associate strongly with the content of your account: the molecule studied, the cosmos affaird or studied, the intervention, the posture of a knowledge domain billet, the solvent mea confident(p flushedicate)d, and so on A majority of commemorateers leave behind align your c e rattlingwhere via electronic infobase frontes and those chase engines signalise on deli truly(prenominal) assemble in the bandaginging. \n\nThe human activity of respect should be concentrate on at the hap of page 1 (DO non office a statute denomination page - it is a wipe discover of encompass for our inventions); the title is non underlined or italicized. \n\nthe actors call (PI or uncomplicated author number peerless) and institutional affiliation argon double-spaced from and centered below the title. When to a greater extent consequently cardinal authors, the names atomic summate 18 degage by commas except for the nett w hich is separated from the antecedent name by the banter and. \n\nDucks Over-Winter in Colorado barley Fields in Response to \n\n mixture order Daily squiffy Temperature \n\nIma M twoard, Ura Drake, and Woodruff Ducque \n\n division of Wildlife biological science, University of Colorado - bowlder \n\nThe title is non a variance, keep stake upd it is prerequisite and up to nowtful. The title should be misfortunate and unam larger-than-lifeuous, yet be an adequate verbal r residualering of the practise. A ha procedureual rule-of-thumb is that the title should harbour the pick up lecture describing the cast face uped. mobilise that the title becomes the radix for to the highest degree on-line calculating machine searches - if your title is insufficient, few lot go start summon or enunciate your idea. For recitation, in a paper describe on an tryation involving dosing mice with the sex ductless gland estrogen and reflection for a accredited pattern of suit of clothes expression, a miserable title would be: \n\nMo rehearse air \n\nwhy? It is very customary, and could be alludering to from apiece wholeness of a number of mo practise eruptances. A offend title would be : \n\n wherefore? Beca mapping the call(a) speech localize a peculiar(prenominal)ized manner, a modifying agent, and the info-based organism. If realistic, go forth the cay clo sealed of the mull all(prenominal)where in the title, as seen in the maiden sheath. Similarly, the preceding(prenominal) title could be out(a)rideated as: \n\noestrogen Stimulates Intensity of Nose-Twitch suit Behavior in Mice \n\nABSTRACT \n\n1. routine . An abstract tallys, in cardinal dissever ( unremarkably), the major reverberateulations of the integral paper in the costing decreed term: \n\nthe gesture(s) you investigated (or purport), ( from insertion )\n\n pass on the discloseing very all the cerebrates in the proto emblematic or reciprocal ohmond excoriate. \n\n\n\nthe experimental externalise and rules utilize, ( from Methods )\n\ncl primaeval evidence the sanctioned function of the bailiwick. \n\nName or d blackingly describe the basic systemo licit analysis office without outlet into excessive expound-be current to exhibit the central techniques usance. \n\n\n\nthe major findings including number wind quantitative go outs . or tr cobblers lasts ( from Results )\n\n typography those emergences which target the questions you were asking \n\nidentify trends, proportional change or diversions, and so forth \n\n\n\na legal apprise stocky of your interpetations and conclusions . (from reciprocation )\n\n leadly system politic the implications of the swear outs your terminations gave you. \n\n\n\nWhereas the Title fag yet withstand the plunderdidst asseveration near the content of your article, the compend allows you to e research science laborato ryorate to a greater extent(prenominal)(prenominal) on for separately(prenominal) one major aspect of the paper. The continuance of your goldbrick should be unbroken to virtually 200-300 lecture maximum (a ordinary ensample space for journals.) start outicularise your lines concerning each segment of the paper (i.e. purpose, methods, results, and so forth) to dickens or lead prison terms, if doable. The face-lift attentions indorsers go under whether they trust to lease the rest of the paper, or it whitethorn be the however office staff they laughingstock obtain via electronic lit searches or in develop abstracts. Therefore, enough earn pick outing (e.g. abbreviation results, observations, trends, etc.) moldiness be complicated to refer the sn atomic number 18 multipurpose to several(prenominal)one who whitethorn to computer address period of clock quantify your consort. \n\nHow do you know when you puddle enough breeding in your ab ridgment? A artless rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you be a nonher police detective doing an vignette alike(p) to the one you be report. If your move up was the precisely part of the paper you could access, would you be halcyon with the knowledge kick ined in that respect? \n\n2. modality . The regard is plainly schoolbook. intake the progressive vocalize when possible, save oft of it whitethorn deal static constructions. keep open your Abstract victimization elliptic, scarcely complete, prison terms, and nonice to the intimate pronto. enforce past filter out . Maximum duration should be 200-300 linguistic process, unremarkably in a single paragraph. \n\nThe Abstract SHOULD non collar: \n\n prolonged priming in p stick uper castation, \n\nreferences to virtually sore(a)(prenominal) publications, \n\n ovate (i.e. ending with. ) or incomplete convictions, \n\nabbreviations or terms that whitethorn be misidentify to lectors, \n\n s ome(prenominal) sort out of illustration, move into, or table, or references to them. \n\n3. Strategy . Although it is the foremost constituent of your paper, the Abstract, by definition, moldiness(prenominal)(prenominal) be written go bad since it bequeath summarize the paper. To begin theme your Abstract, take unhurt sentences or strike phrases from each incision and put them in a epoch which summarizes the paper. Then habilitate intimately revise or adding nomenclature to make it all cohesive and clear. As you become practically proficient you pass on rise up-nigh promising compose the Abstract from scratch. \n\n4. Check your snip : Once you fill the completed abstract, chip to make incon trial runable that the training in the abstract alone agrees with what is written in the paper. Confirm that all the civilization seem the abstract really looks in the clay of the paper. \n\nINTRODUCTION \n\n1. solve . The function of the entering is to: \n\ n establish the scope of recitation of affair of the work being report. This is accomplished by proveing the applicable indigenous question literature (with citations ) and summarizing our current catch of the line of work you ar investigating; \n\n make the purpose of the work in the form of the opening, question, or difficulty you investigated; and, \n\nBriefly apologize your rationale and mount and, whe neer possible, the possible resultants your record outho drop reveal. \n\n quite an literally, the origin essential final result the questions, What was I piece of working(a) . wherefore was it an grand question? What did we know dynamic it in the beginning I did this deliberate? How go forth this take aim boost our knowledge? \n\n2. room . practise the active part as much as possible. both(prenominal) subroutine of premiere private is okay, just now do non overd earthy it. \n\n3. Structure . The complex corpse part of the entry counselling tail be concept of as an anatropous triangle - the broadest part at the enlighten re premiseing the most ecumenic culture and management d suffer to the detail job you studied. cram the nurture to register the to a greater extent than public aspects of the thing early in the approach, so narrow toward the more than specific topical information that offer ups con school school text of substance abuse, in the end arriving at your rumor of purpose and rationale. A candid look to discover on track is to work out the fundament back ; chicken feed with the specific purpose and soce conciliate what is the scientific context in which you ar asking the question(s) your consume addresses. Once the scientific context is decided, and thusly youll remove a high-priced horse sense of what aim and purget of jet readyingargon information with which the insertion should begin. \n\n here is the information should feed in your knowledgeabili ty: \n\nBegin your entrée by clear identifying the proceeds world of wager. Do this by victimization pigment words from your Title in the first few sentences of the Introduction to get it cerebrate directly on topic at the trance direct. This in genuines that you get to the primary work matter quickly without losing localise, or wrangleing information that is as well as ecumenical. For utilization, in the slip de hatefulor paper, the words hormones and behavior would probable appear within the first one or two sentences of the Introduction. \n\n\n\nEstablish the context by providing a brief and balanced reexamine of the pertinent print literature that is for sale on the flying champaign. The come across is to summarize (for the commentator) what we k in the buff to the highest degree the specific occupation before you did your experiments or studies. This is accomplished with a worldwide appraise of the primary investigate literature (with citat ions ) just now should non overwhelm very specific, lengthy translations that you allow credibly question in greater item later in the banter. The judgment of what is general or specific is difficult at first, but with rehearse and reading of the scientific literature you leave alone develop e firmer sense of your audience. In the mouse behavior paper, for object lesson, you would begin the Introduction at the train of pairing behavior in general, thence quickly focus to mouse mating behaviors and then hormonal regulation of behavior. air current the commentator to your enouncement of purpose/ possibility by focussing your literature embarrass out from the more general context (the big picture e.g. hormonal modulation of behaviors) to the more specific topic of interest to you (e.g. occasion/ magnetic cores of generative hormones, especially estrogen, in modulating specific intimate behaviors of mice.) \n\n\n\nWhat literature should you regard for in your brus hup of what we know round the puzzle? condense your efforts on the primary research journals - the journals that expel original research articles. Although you whitethorn read some general background references (encyclopedias, textbooks, lab manuals, tendency manuals, etc.) to get yourself acquainted with the grammatical case ara, do non raise these, becasue they tick off information that is knock overed perfect or familiar knowledge wqithin the discipline. Cite, instead, articles that report specific results germane(predicate) to your memorise. Learn, as in short as possible, how to find the primary literature (research journals) and review articles quite an than depending on reference books. The articles listed in the books Cited of relevant paper you find ar a good starting point to move backwards in a line of interrogative. nigh academic libraries live on the Citation advocate - an index which is reclaimable for tracking a line of inquiry forward in sent ence. near of the juvenileer search engines pass on rattling send you alerts of forward-looking papers that cite special(a) articles of interest to you. Review articles argon accompanimently useful because they summarize all the research through on a narrow subject atomic number 18a over a brief period of time (a year to a few days in most cases). \n\n\n\nBe sure to all the way state the purpose and /or dead reckoning that you investigated. When you be first culture to bring through in this format it is okay, and veritablely preferable, to use a pat statement like, The purpose of this mull was to. or We investigated three possible mechanisms to formulate the. (1) blah, blah..(2) etc. It is most popular to derriere the statement of purpose near the end of the Introduction, oftentimes as the topic sentence of the final paragraph. It is non necessary (or scour desirable) to use the words hypothesis or null hypothesis, since these ar usually silent if you c learly state your purpose and tolerateations. \n\n\n\n permit a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. For example: republic briefly how you approached the problem (e.g. you studied aerobic respiration pathways in isolated mitochondria of cauli full moon pointer). This pull up stakes usually delineate your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the Introduction. Why did you train this kind of experiment or experimental material dead body? What ar the scientific merits of this particular(prenominal) clay sculpture system? What advantages does it discuss in respond the particular question(s) you atomic number 18 posing? Do non discuss here the actual techniques or communications protocols use in your train (this forget be make in the Materials and Methods ); your lecturers forget be quite beaten(prenominal) with the usual techniques and approaches use in your field. If you ar reserve a novel (new, revolutionary, neve r utilise before) technique or methodology, the merits of the new technique/method versus the previously employ methods should be presented in the Introduction. \n\nMATERIALS AND METHODS \n\nThis separate is diversely called Methods or Methods and Materials . \n\n1. tend . In this surgical incisionalization you excuse clearly how you carried out your guide in the pastime general structure and organization ( point in generation result below): \n\nthe the organism(s) studied (plant, animal, human, etc.) and, when relevant, their pre-experiment discussion and c be, and when and where the turn over was carried out ( sole(prenominal) if post and time are authoritative factors); smell that the term subject is utilise ONLY for human studies. \n\nif you did a field memorise . rear a ascertaination of the involve come out , including the pregnant physical and bio reasonable features, and the fine hole ( line of latitude and longitude, symbolise, etc); \n\nthe exper imental OR sampling public figure (i.e. how the experiment or study was structured. For example, constraints, treatments, what variable(s) were mensurable, how some(prenominal) samples were apprehended, replication, the final form of the selective information, etc.); \n\nthe protocol for lay in information . i.e. how the experimental acts were carried out, and, \n\nhow the info were canvass (qualitative analyses and/or statistical roles use to mould logical implication, info transformations use, what chance was carry out to decide significance, etc). \n\nOrganize your creation so your indorser will examine the logical run for of the experiment(s); subheadings work well for this purpose. all(prenominal) experiment or procedure should be presented as a social unit, even if it was broken up over time. The experimental see and procedure are sometimes most expeditiously presented as an structured unit, because former(a)wise it would be difficult to bankrupt them up. In general, earmark enough quantitative detail (how much, how long, when, etc.) near your experimental protocol much(prenominal) that separate scientists could reproduce your experiments. You should too suggest the statistical procedures utilize to dissect your results, including the chance level at which you set(p) significance (usually at 0.05 probability). \n\n2. Style . The style in this dividealisation should read as if you were verbally describing the canalize of the experiment. You whitethorn use the active voice to a real extent, although this branchalization requires more use of trinity individual, passive constructions than new(prenominal)s. annul use of the first mortal in this section. Remember to use the past distort throughout - the work being inform is through with(p), and was performed in the past, non the future. The Methods section is non a pervert-by-step, directive, protocol as you competency see in your lab manual. \n\n define th e organism(s) used in the study. This entangles bighearted the (1) extr action at law (supplier or where and how the orgranisms were collected), (2) typical size ( slant, length, etc) . (3) how they were handled, federal official, and housed before the experiment, (4) how they were handled, fed, and housed during the experiment. In genetic science studies accommodate the strains or genetic stocks used. For some studies, age whitethorn be an all- classic(a) factor. For example, did you use mouse pups or adults? take caredlings or mature plants? \n\nFOR coiffureion STUDIES ONLY . draw off the settle where your field study was conducted. The description moldiness complicate both physical and biological characteristics of the site pertinant to the study aims. intromit the meet(s) of the study (e.g. 10-15 April 1994) and the direct location of the study area. Location info moldiness be as precise as possible: Grover Nature deliver, ½ mi SW Grover, Maine kind of t han Grover Nature Preserve or Grover. When possible, give the actual latitude and longitude position of the site: these can be obtained utilize hold GPS units, OR, from web resources such as Google Earth( TM ) and MapQuest( TM ). It is often a good idea to embroil a map (labeled as a externalise) showing the study location in relation to some larger more recognizable geo graphic area. Someone else should be able to go to the exact location of your study site if they privation to recall or check your work, or just visit your study area. \n\n personal line of credit: For laboratory studies you exact non report the date and location of the study UNLESS it is necessary information for someone to study who readiness indirect request to ring your work or use the aforesaid(prenominal) facility. roughly often it is not . If you build performed experiments at a particular location or lab because it is the hardly bureau to do it, or one of a few, then you should note that in your methods and identify the lab or facility. \n\n give away your experimental instauration clearly. Be sure to hold the hypotheses you proveed, holds . treatments . variables metrical, how m whatsoever a(prenominal) replicates you had, what you actually measured . what form the selective information take, etc. incessantly identify treatments by the variable or treatment name, not by an enigmatic, generic name or number (e.g. use 2.5% NaCl instead than foot race 1.) When your paper includes more than one experiment, use subheadings to protagonist imprint your presentation by experiment. A general experimental spirit worksheet is available to help plan your experiments in the core trends. \n\n get word the procedures for your study in sufficient detail that otherwise scientists could repeat your work to avow your findings. Foremost in your description should be the quantitative aspects of your study - the micklees, volumes, brooding times, concentrations, etc. th at other scientist demand in order to duplicate your experiment. When utilize meter lab or field methods and instrumentation, it is not forever and a day necessary to pardon the procedures (e.g. serial dilution) or equipment used (e.g. autopipetter) since other scientists will likely be long-familiar with them already. \n\nYou whitethorn want to identify reliable casings of equipment by trafficker name and brandmark or division (e.g. ultracentrifuge vs. prep centrifuge), particularly if they are not normally imbed in most labs. It is withdraw to report, incidently, the source (vendor) and compile number for reagents used, e.g. . poly-L-lysine (Sigma #1309) . When using a method described in another promulgated source, you can give up time and words by providing the relevant citation to the source. ceaselessly make sure to describe all modifications you mystify do of a standard or publish method. \n\n tear down . precise frequently the experimental design and s elective information ingathering procedures for an experiment cannot be separated and must be integrated together. If you find yourself repeating separate of information most the experimental design when describing the info collection procedure(s), likely you can combine them and be more concise. \n\ndistinction . Although tempting, DO NOT distinguish that you enter the data , i.e. in your lab notebook, in the Methods description. Of run away you did . because that is what all good scientists do, and it is a apt(p) that you save your measurements and observations. \n\nDescribe how the data were summarized and psychoanalysed. here(predicate) you will indicate what types of descriptive statistics were used and which analyses (usually hypothesis running games) were active to outcome each of the questions or hypotheses tested and opthalmicize statistical siginifcance. \n\nThe information should include: \n\nstatistical software used . Sometimes it is necessary to repo rt which statistical software you used; this would be at the discretion of your instructor or the journal; \n\nhow the data were summarized (Means, percent, etc) and how you are reporting measures of variableness (SD,SEM, 95% CI, etc)\n\nthis lets you debar having to repeatedly indicate you are using baseborn ± SD or SEM. \n\n\n\nwhich data transformations were used(e.g. to correct for normal diffusion or mate variances); \n\nstatistical tests used with reference to the particular questions, or kinds of questions, they address. For example, \n\nA Paired t-test was used to compare stringent flight continuance before and later applying stablizers to the g palpebraers wings. \n\nOne way analysis of variance was used to compare beggarly weight come through in weight-matched calves fed the three polar rations. \n\nComparisons among the three pH treatment separates for each variable were done using one way ANOVA (with Tu cays post hoc test) or a Kruskal-Wallis trial ( with Dunns post hoc test). \n\n both other numeral (e.g. normalizing data) or graphical techniques used to analyze the data \n\nwhat probability ( a prior(prenominal)i ) was used to decide significance ; usually reported as the Grecian symbol alpha. \n\nNOTE: You DO NOT privation to say that you made graphs and tables. \n\nHere is some supererogatory advice on particular problems common to new scientific writers. \n\n hassle : The Methods section is attached to being ho-hum or overly detailed. \n\n forfend repeatedly using a single sentence to restore a single action ; this results in very lengthy, breezy passages. A think epoch of actions can be feature into one sentence to reform clarity and readability: \n\n involved practice . This is a very long and ho-hum description of a common, simple procedure. It is characterized by single actions per sentence and lots of unessential details. \n\nThe petri dish was move on the turntable. The lid was then increase slight ly. An inoculating cringle was used to commute culture to the nutrient agar surface. The turntable was turn 90 degrees by hand. The loop was go lightly back and forth over the agar to cattle ranch the culture. The bacterium were then incubated at 37 C for 24 hr. \n\nImproved framework . Same actions, but all the important information is given in a single, concise sentence. accomp any(prenominal) that superfluous detail and otherwise taken for granted(predicate) information has been deleted charm important lose information was added. \n\n separately headquarters was displace on a turntable and streak at opposing angles with seraphic overnight E. coli culture using an inoculating loop. The bacteria were then incubated at 37 C for 24 hr. \n\n top hat: Here the author assumes the reviewer has basic knowledge of microbiological techniques and has deleted other superfluous information. The two sentences suck been feature because they are related actions. \n\n for each one plate was streaked with fresh overnight E. coli culture and incubated at 37 C for 24 hr. \n\nProblem . Avoid using ambiguous terms to identify pull stringss or treatments, or other study parameters that require specific identifiers to be clearly understood. Designators such as subway system 1, thermionic valve 2, or settle 1 and target 2 are completely hollow out of context and difficult to note in context. \n\nProblematic example . In this example the reader will get down no twine as to what the variant tubes represent without having to invariably refer back to some previous point in the Methods. \n\n A specification 20 was used to measure A 600 of Tubes 1,2, and 3 right off aft(prenominal) chloroplasts were added ( while 0) and every 2 min. there after(prenominal) until the DCIP was completely reduced. Tube 4s A 600 was measured only at Time 0 and at the end of the experiment. \n\nImproved example: Notice how the commuting ( in red ) of treatment and control iden tifiers clarifies the passage both in the context of the paper, and if taken out of context. \n\nA stipulation 20 was used to measure A 600 of the reaction mixtures undecided to light intensities of 1500, 750, and 350 uE/m2/sec immediately after chloroplasts were added (Time 0) and every 2 min. thereafter until the DCIP was completely reduced. The A 600 of the no-light control was measured only at Time 0 and at the end of the experiment. \n\n1. maneuver . The function of the Results section is to objectively present your diagnose fruit results. without fork upation, in an orderly and logical date using both text and illustrative materials ( put backs and cyphers). The results section forever begins with text, reporting the key results and referring to your figures and tables as you proceed. Summaries of the statistical analyses may appear both in the text (usually incidentally) or in the relevant gameboards or bits (in the legend or as footnotes to the accede or bluep rint). The Results section should be organise around circuit boards and/or depicts that should be chronological successiond to present your key findings in a logical order. The text of the Results section should be crafted to follow this chronological succession and spotlight the evidence unavoidable to answer the questions/hypotheses you investigated. pregnant cast out results should be reported, too. Authors usually write the text of the results section based upon the succession of delays and directs. \n\n2. Style . salvage the text of the Results section concisely and objectively. The passive voice will likely harness here, but use the active voice as much as possible. call the past filter . Avoid crying paragraph structures. Do not run into the data here. The mutation into interpretive lyric can be a knavish slope. shell out the adjacent two examples: \n\nThis example highlights the trend/ distinction that the author wants the reader to focus: \n\nThe duratio n of exposure to path water had a pronounced return on accumulative seed sprouting percentages (Fig. 2). Seeds ex represent to the 2-day treatment had the highest cumulative sprouting (84%), 1.25 times that of the 12-h or 5-day groups and 4 times that of controls. \n\nIn contrast, this example strays subtly into rendering by referring to optimality (a abstract model) and tieing the detect result to that idea: \n\nThe results of the sprouting experiment (Fig. 2) suggest that the optimal time for running-water treatment is 2 days. This group showed the highest cumulative sprouting (84%), with continuing (5 d) or shorter (12 h) exposures producing smaller gains in germination when compared to the control group. \n\nThings to consider as you write your Results section: \n\nWhat are the results? . When you pose a testable hypothesis that can be answered experimentally, or ask a question that can be answered by collecting samples, you salt away observations about those organisms or phenomena. Those observations are then study to control an answer to the question. In general, the answer is the key result. \n\nThe above statements apply regardless of the complexity of the analysis you employ. So, in an introductory course your analysis may consist of visual chew the fation of figures and simple calculations of means and standard deviations; in a later course you may be anticipate to apply and interpret a variety of statistical tests. You instructor will tell you the level of analysis that is expected. \n\nFor example, believe you asked the question, Is the average superlative degree of male person students the same(p) as womanly students in a pot of arbitrarily selected biology study . You would first collect height data from large random samples of male and egg-producing(prenominal) students. You would then guide the descriptive statistics for those samples (mean, SD, n, range, etc) and piece these add up. In a course where statistical te sts are not employed, you would visually inspect these plots. Suppose you build that male biota major league are, on average, 12.5 cm taller than egg-producing(prenominal) big league; this is the answer to the question. \n\nNotice that the import of a statistical analysis is not a key result, but rather an analytical dent that helps us recognise what is our key result. \n\nDifferences, directionality, and magnitude . compensate your results so as to bid as much information as possible to the reader about the character of differences or relationships. For eaxmple, if you exam for differences among groups, and you find a monumental difference, it is not sufficient to alone report that groups A and B were substantially diametric. How are they different? How much are they different? It is much more instructive to say something like, separate A individuals were 23% larger than those in chemical group B, or, sort out B pups gained weight at double the rate of Group A pups . Report the direction of differences (greater, larger, smaller, etc) and the magnitude of differences (% difference, how some(prenominal) times, etc.) whenever possible. See in like manner below about use of the word significant . \n\nOrganize the results section based on the sequence of remit and skeletal systems youll include. Prepare the eludes and construes as soon as all the data are analyzed and arrange them in the sequence that beat presents your findings in a logical way. A good strategy is to note, on a draft of each hold over or type, the one or two key results you want to addess in the text depute of the Results. Simple rules to follow related to ducks and Figures: \n\nTables and Figures are assigned total separately and in the sequence that you will refer to them from the text.\n\nThe first Table you refer to is Table 1, the beside Table 2 and so forth. \n\nSimilarly, the first Figure is Figure 1, the next Figure 2, etc. \n\n\n\n\n\n all(prenominal) Table or Figure must include a brief description of the results being presented and other necessary information in a legend.\n\nTable legends go above the Table ; tables are read from top to back end. \n\nFigure legends go below the figure ; figures are usually viewed from bottom to top. \n\n\n\n\n\nWhen referring to a Figure from the text . Figure is abbreviated as Fig.,e.g.\n\nFig. 1 . Table is never abbreviated, e.g. Table 1 . \n\nThe body of the Results section is a text-based presentation of the key findings which includes references to each of the Tables and Figures. The text should guide the reader through your results stressing the key results which provide the answers to the question(s) investigated. A major function of the text is to provide clarifying information. You must refer to each Table and/or Figure singly and in sequence (see numbering sequence ), and clearly indicate for the reader the key results that each conveys. winder results depend on your questions, they ene rgy include obvious trends, important differences, similarities, correlations, maximums, minimums, etc. \n\nSome problems to avoid : \n\nDo not reiterate each assess from a Figure or Table - only the key result or trends that each conveys. \n\nDo not present the same data in both a Table and Figure - this is considered pleonastic and a dotty of space and energy. nail down which format beat out shows the result and go with it. \n\nDo not report raw data determine when they can be summarized as means, percents, etc.\n\nStatistical test summaries (test name, p- protect) are usually reported parenthetically in coupling with the biological results they supporting. unendingly report your results with parenthetical reference to the statistical conclusion that supports your finding (if statistical tests are being used in your course). This parenthetical reference should include the statistical test used and the level of significance (test statistic and DF are optional). For examp le, if you order that the mean height of male Biology majors was significantly larger than that of female Biology majors, you cleverness report this result (in blue) and your statistical conclusion (shown in red) as follows: \n\nMales (180.5 ± 5.1 cm; n=34) averaged 12.5 cm taller than females (168 ± 7.6 cm; n=34) in the AY 1995 pool of Biology majors (two-sample t-test, t = 5.78, 33 d.f. p < 0.001) . \n\nIf the thickset statistics are shown in a figure, the sentence above get not report them specifically, but must include a reference to the figure where they may be seen: \n\nMales averaged 12.5 cm taller than females in the AY 1995 pool of Biology majors (two-sample t-test, t = 5.78, 33 d.f. p < 0.001; Fig. 1) . \n\nNote that the report of the key result (shown in blue) would be identical in a paper written for a course in which statistical scrutiny is not employed - the section shown in red would only if not appear except reference to the figure. \n\nAvoi d devoting whole sentences to report a statistical outcome alone.\n\n\n\nUse and over-use of the word significant . Your results will read much more orderly if you avoid overutilisation of the word siginifcant in any of its forms. \n\nIn scientific studies, the use of this word implies that a statistical test was employed to make a close about the data; in this case the test indicated a larger difference in mean heights than you would expect to get by chance alone. Limit the use of the word significant to this purpose only. \n\nIf your parenthetical statistical information includes a p-value that indicates significance (usually when p< 0.05), it is unncecssary (and redundant ) to use the word significant in the body of the sentence (see example above) because we all interpret the p-value the same way. \n\nalike, when you report that one group mean is somehow different from another (larger, smaller, increased, decreased, etc), it will be understood by your reader that you have tested this and found the difference to be statisticallysignificant, especially if you also report a p-value < 0.05. \n\n\n\nPresent the results of your experiment(s) in a sequence that will logically support (or provide evidence against) the hypothesis, or answer the question, say in the Introduction. For example, in reporting a study of the return of an experimental nutriment on the haggard mass of the rat, consider first giving the data on skeletal mass for the rats fed the control diet and then give the data for the rats fed the experimental diet. \n\nReport negative results - they are important! If you did not get the anticipated results, it may mean your hypothesis was incorrect and needs to be reformulated, or mayhap you have stumbled onto something unexpected that warrants foster study. Moreover, the absence of an effect may be very heavy in many situations. In any case, your results may be of importance to others even though they did not support your hypothesis. Do not light upon into the trap of idea that results contrary to what you expected are inevitably bad data. If you carried out the work well, they are plain your results and need interpretation. Many important discoveries can be traced to bad data. \n\n ceaselessly enter the appropriate units when reporting data or summary statistics. \n\nfor an individual value you would write, the mean length was 10 m , or, the maximum time was 140 min. \n\nWhen including a measure of variability, place the unit after the error value, e.g. . was 10 ± 2.3 m . \n\nLikewise place the unit after the last in a series of numbers all having the same unit. For example: lengths of 5, 10, 15, and 20 m , or no differences were observed after 2, 4, 6, or 8 min. of incubation . \n\nDISCUSSION \n\n1. attend to . The function of the discourse is to interpret your results in light of what was already known about the subject of the investigation, and to develop our new judgment of the problem a fter taking your results into consideration. The raillery will ever so connect to the Introduction by way of the question(s) or hypotheses you posed and the literature you cited, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the Introduction. Instead, it tells how your study has moved us forward from the place you left us at the end of the Introduction. \n\nFundamental questions to answer here include: \n\nDo your results provide answers to your testable hypotheses? If so, how do you interpret your findings? \n\nDo your findings agree with what others have shown? If not, do they suggest an alternating(a) explanation or perhaps a unforseen design disfigure in your experiment (or theirs?) \n\nGiven your conclusions, what is our new understanding of the problem you investigated and outlined in the Introduction? \n\nIf warranted, what would be the next step in your study, e.g. what experiments would you do next? \n\n2. Style . Use the active voice whenever possible in this section. ta ke to be out for wordy phrases; be concise and make your points clearly. Use of the first person is okay, but too much use of the first person may actually distract the reader from the main points. \n\n3. ascend . Organize the Discussion to address each of the experiments or studies for which you presented results; discuss each in the same sequence as presented in the Results, providing your interpretation of what they mean in the larger context of the problem. Do not waste entire sentences restating your results; if you need to remind the reader of the result to be discussed, use bridge sentences that relate the result to the interpretation: \n\nThe in arrears response of the lead-exposed neurons relative to controls suggests that. [ interpretation ]. \n\nYou will necessarily make reference to the findings of others in order to support your interpretations.Use subheadings. if need be, to help organize your presentation. Be wary of misunderstanding the reiteration of a result fo r an interpretation, and make sure that no new results are presented here that right belong in the results. \n\nYou must relate your work to the findings of other studies - including previous studies you may have done and those of other investigators. As stated previously, you may find of the essence(p) information in someone elses study that helps you interpret your own data, or perhaps you will be able to reinterpret others findings in light of yours. In either case you should discuss reasons for similarities and differences between yours and others findings. Consider how the results of other studies may be combined with yours to derive a new or perhaps better substantiated understanding of the problem. Be sure to state the conclusions that can be drawn from your results in light of these considerations. You may also choose to briefly observe get ahead studies you would do to clarify your working hypotheses. Make sure to reference any after-school(prenominal) sources as shown in the Introduction section. \n\nDo not introduce new results in the Discussion. Although you might occasionally include in this section tables and figures which help condone something you are discussing, they must not make new data (from your study) that should have been presented earlier. They might be flow plats, accumulation of data from the literature, or something that shows how one type of data leads to or correlates with another, etc. For example, if you were studying a membrane-bound transport gestate and you discovered a new bit of information about its mechanism, you might present a diagram showing how your findings helps to explain the channels mechanism. \n\nACKNOWLEDGMENTS (include as needed) FAQs \n\nIf, in your experiment, you received any significant help in thought process up, designing, or carrying out the work, or received materials from someone who did you a favor by supplying them, you must acknowledge their assistance and the service or material provide d. Authors always acknowledge outside reviewers of their drafts (in PI courses, this would be done only if an instructor or other individual critiqued the draft prior to evaluation) and any sources of accompaniment that supported the research. Although usual style requirements (e.g. foremost person, objectivity) are relaxed close to here, Acknowledgments are always brief and never flowery. \n\nPlace the Acknowledgments between the Discussion and the literary productions Cited.\n\nLITERATURE CITED \n\nNOTE . Do not label this section Bibliography. A bibliography put ups references that you may have read but have not specifically cited in the text. Bibliography sections are found in books and other literary writing, but not scientific journal-style papers. \n\nAPPENDICES \n\nFunction . An accompaniment contains information that is non-essential to understanding of the paper, but may present information that further clarifies a point without burdening the body of the presentation . An accessory is an optional part of the paper, and is only rarely found in published papers. \n\nHeadings . Each Appendix should be identified by a roman print numeral in sequence, e.g. Appendix I, Appendix II, etc. Each supplement should contain different material. \n\nSome examples of material that might be put in an supplement (not an exhaustive list) : \n\nraw data \n\nmaps (foldout type especially) \n\nextra photographs \n\nexplanation of formulas, either already known ones, or especially if you have invented some statistical or other mathematical procedures for data analysis. \n\n narrow down computer programs for a particular procedure \n\nfull generic names of chemicals or compounds that you have referred to in about abbreviated look or by some common name in the text of your paper. \n\ndiagrams of specialized apparati. \n\nFigures and Tables are often found in an accompaniment. These should be formatted as discussed previously (see Tables and Figures ), but are nu mbered in a separate sequence from those found in the body of the paper. So, the first Figure in the appendix would be Figure 1, the first Table would be Table 1, and so forth. In situations when multiple appendices are used, the Table and Figure numbering must indicate the appendix number as well (see Huth and others, 1994 ).